Leadership Self-Assessment Essay - 3044 Words

As an officer in the United States Army, it has been imperative for me to understand every facet of leadership and why it remains important to be an effective leader. During this course, I have learned some valuable lessons about myself as a leader and how I can improve on my leadership ability in the future. The journal entries along with the understanding of available leadership theories have been an integral part of my learning during this course. For all of the journals and assessments that I completed, I feel it has given me a good understanding of my current leadership status and my future potential as a leader. All of the specific assessments looked at several areas in regards to leadership; these assessments covered several†¦show more content†¦As discussed by Military Times (2013), the constantly assess the following traits by continually knowing myself and seeking self-improvement every chance I get, along with being technically proficient in my duties while seekin g responsibility and taking responsibility for my actions. I diligently work to make sound and timely decisions while setting the example for others to emulate. I closely monitor my personnel and look out for their well-being, while keeping them informed at all times. I always develop a sense a responsibility in my followers, ensuring each task is understood, supervised, and accomplished. I regularly find new and improved ways to build teams while employing them in accordance with their capabilities. A person’s personality allows us to see if we are passive or aggressive, along with why a person may be shy or outgoing (LussierAchua, 2013). My number one personality trait according to the profile assessment indicates that I am highest in conscientiousness, followed by adjustment, surgency, openness to new experiences, and agreeableness. As we continue to assess my leadership, all of these will play an important role in how I continue to be a strong leader with other motivating factors. As we grow from children to adulthood, we continue to have learned behavior that shows our personality profile and the relationship between differentShow MoreRelatedLeadership Self Assessment551 Words   |  2 PagesLeadership takes on many faces depending on the responsibilities and environments that are available (Rubino, Esparza Chassiakos, 2014). However, some basic qualities are universal to all effective leaders. 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The two theories of leadership I will evaluate myself on in this paper will be the skills approach and the team leadership theory. The skills approach shifts our focus from personalityRead MoreSelf Assessment Of Leadership Practices1019 Words   |  5 PagesSelf-Assessment of Leadership Practices The road to becoming an exceptional leader while rewarding, is one filled with numerous challenges. Developing the necessary skills required in order to successfully lead others is a life-long process. In this paper, I will discuss in details my leadership qualities. I will include results from my Seven Habits Profile, evaluate my strength and weaknesses and adopt leadership theories that will help guide my self-evaluation. In addition, I will analyze provenRead MoreLeadership Self Assessment Of The Field Of Nursing Leadership1130 Words   |  5 PagesLeadership Self-Assessment In the field of nursing leadership is critical within the units and nursing practice. However, in the healthcare feel we may find ourselves interacting with different types of leaders. Upon completion of my leadership self-assessment, I was found to be a Participative, (democratic) type leader. To understand what this means the individual must understand that there are three main types of leadership styles. There is the Authoritarian, (autocratic) leader, participativeRead MoreSelf-Evaluation and Assessment in Contemporary Leadership1397 Words   |  6 PagesSelf Evaluation and Assessment in Contemporary Leadership What makes a good leader? Is it the ability to execute tasks, or manage teams? There are seriously a myriad of answers to such questions. Yet, one notable answer is the ability to learn from ones mistakes and use effective self-evaluation and assessment in order to increase overall performance. Self assessment is a fundamental character found within effective leadership because it invokes continual learning, ensures positive rises inRead MoreDecision Making, And Leadership : A Self Assessment1125 Words   |  5 PagesEI, Decision-Making, and Leadership: A Self-Assessment The newest additions to leadership and the traits organizations now seek out includes Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Decision-Making (DM). Acknowledging the transformation of emotions from a negative unwanted factor to a positive, successful factor in organizational terms is essential in today s’ job market. Moreover, today’s organizational view, EI is indispensable to the effectiveness of leadership (Fambrough, Hart, 2008). The fact thatRead MoreImportance of Self-Assessment in Leadership Roles1078 Words   |  4 PagesLeadership is based on a complex interaction between the leader and the existing social and circumstantial environment, i.e. the current team and project characteristics. With continuous changes in team and project structure, the leader is expected to modify his/her efforts accordingly in order to ensure efficiency and success. Therefore, leaders find themselves in a never-ending learning experience during which adjustments in leadership style will not only be required, but will have to be soughtRead MoreLeadership Self Assessment : Ronald Reagan1540 Words   |  7 PagesLeadership Self Assessment Ronald Reagan once said, â€Å"the greatest leader is not necessarily the one who does the greatest things, he is the one that gets the people to do the greatest things.† This quote by our past president, Ronald Reagan, relates to my experiences with leadership. Throughout high school I experienced democratic leadership though playing sports like field hockey and track. I have also experienced leadership during small group projects, as well as being a leader of an organization

Havisham and Havisham Free Essays

Miss Havisham and Havisham: Two Entirely Different People Carol Anne Duffy’s poem is intertextual. The character Havisham was built, off of Charles Dickens â€Å"Great Expectations† and more specifically off of Miss Havisham. Both Miss Havisham and Havisham are described as decaying skeletons and because of their similar names it would make sense to think of them as the same person, but are they really? At my first glance it seemed as if both Dickens’ and Duffy’s Havisham were the same character and I will admit there are some similarities like their obsession, but even these so called similarities have differences at their core. We will write a custom essay sample on Havisham and Havisham or any similar topic only for you Order Now In reality they are very different characters that act differently and have different personalities. Even the way they are depicted, is very differently from one another, but when one looks at them together they do seem to help Dickens’ Miss Havisham be seen in a different life; a more human light. So even if the do seem similar, they are in fact very different. You can see these differences most strongly by looking at the Havisham’s personalities. Dickens’ Miss Havisham is strong, powerful and driven for revenge towards Compeyson, and every other man alive. She even plans to and manipulates Estella so she may complete her revenge and hurt many men the way she has been hurt. Duffy’s Havisham on the other hand seems to be more fragile and weak and tells everyone she hates â€Å"him† but seems to be tottering on the edge of her conviction and on the edge of her desire for him. Both Miss Havisham and Havisham seem to have a strong obsession, both are obsessed with their former fiance and have lead there life surrounding themselves with that obsession. Dickens’ Miss Havisham obsession does tend to differ from Duffy’s Havisham. Dickens’ Havisham is obsessed with destroying and breaking any and all men she meets. Her obsession has even lead her to destroying Estella, the only one that she had at first sought to protect. My Dear! Believe this: when she first came to me, I meant to save her from misery like my own. At first I meant no more. † â€Å"Well, well! † said I. â€Å"I hope so. † â€Å"But as she grew, and promised to be very beautiful, I gradually did worse, and with my praises, and with my jewels, and with my teachings, and with this figure of myself always before her a warning to back and point my essons, I stole her heart away and put ice in its place (Dickens 365) At first, Miss Havisham wished to protect Estella from the harsh world, to protect her from any man who would hurt her as she herself was hurt, but obsession lead her down a darker path. We can see part of this darkness when she tries to make Pip like herself, to make him obsessed and live his life trapped by his love for Estella, just like she lived her life for preserving the time before she was left by Compeyson. We can see her fueling his love for Estella several times throughout the novel, one of the most noticeable would be when she tells him to love Estella even if she hurts him. â€Å"Love her, love her, love her! How does she use you? ‘ Before I could answer †¦ she repeated, ‘Love her, love her, lover her! If she favours you, love her. If she wounds you, love her. If she tears your heart to pieces – and as it gets older and stronger, it will tear deeper – love her, love her, love her! † (Dickens 219). Pip, like Estella is becoming a marionette for Miss Havisham’s obsession, for if she could not have a life of happiness, a life being married to the one she thought loved her, no one could. Her revenge towards the man she once loved turns her bitter and twisted, putting anyone in her path in danger. At this time she is like a broken toy, malfunctioning and working herself into a frenzy, her revenge that started off towards one man has become a revenge and hatred towards love, and anyone who may achieve it. The Havisham from Duffy’s poem seems to have a more single minded obsession. She is obsessed with what has happened to her and the one who did this to her. Her obsession for the man who jilted her takes both and envious and murderous tone, for example she has â€Å"dark green pebbles for eyes† and â€Å"ropes on the back of my hands [she] could strangle with†(Duffy Lines 3-4). No her eyes have not turned into pebbles, but she is envious and jealous of her former lover, after all she is rotting from the inside out while he is living without even having regretted hurting her. The â€Å"ropes† on the back of her hands could mean many things but it could be an indication of her age, or her veins swollen with age and sticking off of her corpse like body. The fact she could strangle with her own veins shows a sinister scene, who she wishes to strangle could be herself but is most likely the man who jilted her. The only real similarity between the Havishams would be there decayed appearance. After all both of Havisham descriptions are dark and tend to make them seem like the living dead of skeletons; for example Dickens’ Havisham is described as follows; I saw that the bride within the bridal dress had withered like the dress, and like the flowers, and had no brightness left but the brightness of her sunken eyes. I saw that the dress had been put upon the rounded figure of a young woman, and that the figure upon which it now hung loose, had shrunk to skin and bone. †¦ Now, waxwork and skeleton seemed to have dark eyes that moved and looked at me (Dickens 52) Miss Havisham has decayed and withered away, she still wears her bridal dress, and it has yellowed and decayed along with her. She has no substance, she is a person that has already died long ago, and only an empty crazed shell remains. Duffy’s Havisham has a similar description, â€Å"Spinster. I stink and remember. Whole days/ in bed cawing Nooooo at the wall; the dress/ yellowing, trembling if I open the wardrobe;/ the slewed mirror, full-length, her, myself, who did this/ to me? †(Duffy Lines 5-9). Havisham has both the appearance of Miss Havisham and her name, she even is still wearing her own bridal dress, even after all the years it has been since she was jilted. She has also yellowed, decayed and her withered body trembles from the strain of life. But Havisham spends days â€Å"cawing† at the wall, she has gone past the point of straight forwardly get revenge, her words are choppy, disconnected and she can’t seem to follow a though. She has fractured mentally and can only think of her pain from being betrayed. She, unlike Miss Havisham, has no grip on reality and cannot accomplish her revenge. Another one of the differences between the Havisham is that Dickens Miss Havisham is strong and steady in her desires, whereas Duffy’s Havisham is weak and wavers in her feelings. Miss Havisham is defined by her rejection on her wedding day. She is determined to live in heartbreak while making it impossible for those around her to have healthy relationships. She stops all the clocks, she wears the same dress, she never eats in front of anyone and only every wears one shoe. She essentially stopped time for herself by not allowing anything to change after she learns about her lover’s betrayal and her determination has helped her to do this. â€Å"I’ll tell you what real love is. It is blind devotion, unquestioning self humiliation, utter submission, trust and belief against yourself and against the whole world, giving up your whole heart and soul to the smiter–as I did† (Dickens 219). Duffy’s Havisham on the other hand is constantly wavering, she can seem to make up her mind about her true feelings, and after all when you look at how broken she is it is not a big surprise. Even her fist line has a contradiction about her feelings, â€Å"Beloved sweetheart bastard. †¦ / Some nights better, the lost body over me,/ my fluent tongue in its mouth in its ear/ then down till I suddenly bite awake†(Duffy Lines 1, 10 -12). After seeing these lines we can be sure that Havisham has mixed feelings about her ex-fiance. She obviously bounces between bitter hatred and self-loathing that she still desires them. Her ex is both something that she finds beloved and a sweetheart, but also feels betrayed by; after all she does call him a bastard. We can see she still desires his body when she speaks about â€Å"the lost body† on top of her. But you can see her bitterness remains by her dehumanization of him. When you first read â€Å"Great Expectations† Miss Havisham does not seem to be real. She seemed to me to be a creation from a child’s imagination. She is a ghost, a skeleton and an engineer who takes pleasure in manipulating everyone from Estella to Pip. Though after having read Duffy’s Havisham, it seems as if Miss Havisham is more human. Duffy’s Havisham wants to have â€Å"a male corpse for a long slow honeymoon† (Duffy Line 15). She is quite twisted according to our standards and makes Dickens’ Miss Havisham seem tame and mild is they are shown together. Havisham is dark and has a slightly murderous intent; she is violent and is more dangerous, especially if we compare her to Miss Havisham. Havisham is but a tool to make Miss Havisham seem softer, and nicer. A tool that makes it possible to have pity upon Miss Havsham and place the blame of her current state upon her insensitive ex-fiance Compeyson. So, in conclusion, the two Havishams that at first seem to be one and the same are in fact different. Dickens’ Havisham is strong and unwavering, determined and manipulative, while Duffy’s Havisham is weak and wavering, helpless yet dangerous. They both have very different personalities, and very different ways of looking at things. They are two completely different individuals that just happen to have a similar name and appearance. They don’t act the same; they don’t have the same desires or motives so they can not be the same person. When they are placed side by side they just use each other to let the other be seen in a different light. Whether we see a crazed, dark evil or a pitiful, lonely soul depends on the Havisham you wish to view. Works Cited Dickens, Charles, and Margaret Cardwell. Great Expectations. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998. Print. Duffy, Carol Ann. â€Å"Havisham. †Ã‚  Introduction to English Studies. North Bay: Nipissing University Coursepack, 2012. Black Board. C. McFarlane. Web. 02 Mar. 2012. How to cite Havisham and Havisham, Papers

The Street free essay sample

A women’s role in society can differ based on the environment they live in, whether it be an expectation to resort to prostitution, or developing a high social status, each atmosphere varies. In The Street, by Ann Petry, like Lutie Johnson, in addition to being a minority, the women living there are trapped by their surroundings because they are vulnerable and at risk. Lutie Johnson changed the roles of women in society because she is a dominant successful intellectual that was not allowing herself become a victim. In the past, women’s roles were basically centered around cooking and cleaning, while the men went to work. The man was always seen as superior, powerful, and contained maximum control. Women were never expected to be able to obtain a job, Its best that the man do the work when the babies are young†¦ Not good for the woman to work when she‘s young (Petry 33). We will write a custom essay sample on The Street or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In the society that Lutie is living in, women are expected to be housewives and always be lower than the higher male status. Because Lutie, on the other hand, was the â€Å"bread-winner† of the family, she developed dominance and authority over their household. She became a wife with power and leadership which led her to become a strong independent woman. Lutie proved to society that she can become a successful and independent women supporting a family, while facing racial discrimination, and sexist assumptions. Especially in Harlem, wherever one turns, it is very rare to seek a perception of a flourishing sovereign black woman, but Lutie was aspiring to make it possible. Lutie is an exception to the social normality and repetition of the expectation that African-American women will resort to prostitution as a savior to their collapsing lives. Like the other women in Harlem, Lutie struggled to overcome poverty and become financially stable to support her household, while being a single mother. Lutie is unalike the other women in their environment, because she does not resort to prostitution to make a living. Lutie changed the expectations and aspects of women because she preferred to earn money with a career instead of being intruded and victimized by other men. She strived to succeed and work her way through to earn a living, â€Å"and she went on thinking, that if Benjamin Franklin could live on a little bit of money†¦then so could she†(Petry 64). The fact that Lutie is comparing herself to Benjamin Franklin, shows that she is developing a higher status and struggling to achieve her goals. Also, Lutie compared herself to an extremely successful male that obtained a high standing in American society, attempting to prove that there is no difference between the two individuals. Lutie wanted to support her family in a proper way so that she can gain respect and dignity. Lutie used her talent to pursue a career†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦preposterous bowing was their way of telling her they were accepting her on merit as a singer, not because she was Boots’ new girlfriend. †(Petry 222). For once, the people of Harlem respected a women, Lutie, for her talent instead of her latest â€Å"partner†. Lutie was an optimist, and because of that , she would endeavor to achieve the many goals and dreams that she has in store for her and her son. Lutie also attempted to solve her problems slowly and took one step at a time, â€Å"having solved one problem, there was always a new one cropping up to take it’s place† (Petry 59). Lutie contented to success and defended her rights as a potent women, while trying to put her life back together. From the perceptions of the novel, one is ultimately led to believe that the victimization and the barriers that black women face are because of race. Race is clearly the main impediment for Lutie. The color of her skin is what prevented her from being able to progress the way she wished to. Racism affects the way that people glance at you and perceive you. Men may also take advantage of a women because of her color, â€Å"’Mom’, he said ’Why do white people want colored people shining shoes’†(Petry 71). Many women on the streets of Harlem that are taken advantage of are African-American. The fact that Lutie is a black woman contributes to her struggle, making it more difficult and challenging. Women in this society have to deal with the fact that male dominance is overpowering their minority putting them at a much higher risk of victimization. Through out the book, Lutie attempts to break free from the label that women are weak and oppressed because of their such low position in social status. Lutie Johnson changed the roles of women , not only in the streets of Harlem, but in the society as a whole. She converted their role from being enclosed and reliable, to a much more secure, vigorous, and striving one. Lutie broke the mold of African-American women and the continuous pattern of victimization and male supremacy.

Models, histogram method are i... free essay sample

Models, histogram method are independent of the shape of a cluster, trained simple and rapid way. In evaluation also, they can be utilized in several clock cycles per pixel needed for accessing memory. It was concluded that non-parametric models often outperform parametric ones with the cost of high storage requirement.Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are mathematical models that stimulated by means of human nervous system. In skin detection, ANNs had been applied for specific functions and systems. In illumination reimbursement, dynamic method, in mixture with different strategies, and direct classification, variety of ANNs such as MLP, SOM, PCNN, etc, are exploitedA multilayer perceptron (MLP) is a feed forward synthetic artificial neural network that consists of several layers of nodes in a cyclic directed graph, every layer absolutely linked to the next one. Every neuron is a processing detail with a nonlinear activation feature besides for input ones. A common approach to educate MLPs is back propagation (BP) which is used at the side of optimization techniques along with gradient descent. We will write a custom essay sample on Models, histogram method are i or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Nonetheless, skin color distribution of same person defers under different illumination conditions. Even more, if a person is moving the apparent skin color also changes since position is relative to camera and light changes. Human vision system can adapt with the change but digital cameras cannot. To detect rapid change in illumination for skin detection, two types of approaches were taken- color constancy and dynamic adaption. Color constancy transforms image contents to a known illuminant that can represent contents in an image. But estimation of the illuminant is a complex problem. All approaches assume existing camera characteristics and illuminant distribution. Moreover, in general skin color constancy, color constancy is used as a preprocessing step. Dynamic adaption approaches adapted by skin color model to detect changing environment. Cho et al proposed an adaptive threshold for HSV color space. A threshold box in HSV color space is used to separate skin and non-skin pixel. However, to get a robust color representation with varying illumination is a major problem. The neural network based approaches are a promising since it does not make any explicit assumption.2.5 SVM ModelsSupport vector machine (SVMs) are supervised method applied to many pattern recognition tasks as well as human skin classification. The use of annotated training set of skin and non-skin pixels, an SVM training algorithm constructs a model which attempts to assign pixels into the two training class, making it a non-probabilistic binary linear classifier. An SVM model is a representation of the pixels as the points in space, mapped so that skin and non-skin pixels are divided by a clear and as wide as possible gap. New pixels are then mapped into that same space and predicted to a category based on which side of the gap they fall on. Han et al. [81] exploited an SVM based on active learning to detect skin pixels for gesture recognition, claiming that in compare with other applications.Performance ComparisonAs a way to carry out a fair empirical evaluation of skin and skin segmentation strategies, its essential to apply a standard and representative training and test set. Different methods have presented their evaluation results based on different sets and for those using the same test-set, even different photos may have been used.From color space point of view, it seems that for those method in which the skin and skin cluster is greater compact, the specific policies are less complicated to design. But accuracy isnt always different in view that color spaces and consequent rules are convertible. However, the overall performance of Bayesian classifiers has been also extraordinary but with highly excessive false detection rate.Additionally the more memory is utilized for construction of table, the better result is achieved. Bayesian methods are evaluated with SGM, GMM, MLP and SOM seems to be better. Phung et al. [7] have in comparison the performance of multiple skin detection methods. The Bayesian classifier outperforms other techniques with a quite excessive difference. Due to the field evaluation nature of multispectral methods, it is not currently possible to compare the performance of these techniques either among themselves or with other systems. However, the high accuracy of such systems in most of normal situations is not questionable.Its tough to derive a strict and truthful conclusion. Moreover, Bayesian classifier with maximum wide variety of bins and huge training set accompanying with Bayesian community had been the great classifiers in terms of accuracy. From speed, computation and implementation cost, however, theres trade off among strategies. With developing new strategies and techniques in recent years, former techniques are set apart, whilst precision gets first priority. But, these methods are much slower than most of traditional methods which makes them incompatible for real-time applications.2.6 Clustering TechniquesIn this study, a clustering method is used, for that reason some clustering methods are discussed here. Clustering is a division of data into groups of similar objects. In each group, named as cluster, consists of objects that have similar properties and dissimilar compared to objects of other groups. If data is representing in cluster it will lose some fine details but achieve simplification. Most data clustering problems are considered NP-hard. Those methods can be categorized into different paradigms -Partitional Clustering, Hierarchical Clustering, Density-based Clustering, Spectral Clustering and Gravitational Clustering.2.6.1 Partitional ClusteringAs the name suggested, in partitional clustering, data is divided into non-overlapping subsets such that each data instance is assigned to exactly one subset. For example, k-means [82] and k-medoids are most famous example. K-means clustering applies an iterative approach. At first it choose the means of cluster commonly known as centroids. Afterwards, it assigns data points to its nearest centroids. This approach is efficient in terms of computational speed and simple to use [83]. However, main shortcoming is vulnerability of random seeding technique. If the initial seeding points are not chosen carefully, the result will be dissatisfactory. For this reason a updated method name k-means++ [84] was proposed to improve However, K-mediod is an improvement of K-means also to deal with discrete data, which takes the data point, most near the center of data points, as the representative of the corresponding cluster

Steve Roland Prefontaine essays

Steve Roland Prefontaine essays To Give Anything Less then Your Best is To Sacrifice the Gift. Steve Roland Prefontaine was born in Coos Bay, Oregon, on January 25, 1951. Through out his life he established himself as one of the greatest American Running legends. He is the only person to ever hold the American record in all distances for 2,000-10,000 meters. The impacts of his short life can still be seen and heard today. Wendy Ray the announcer at Hayward field during Pres running career describes him best saying He just had whatever that is-I dont know, actors have it. Singers have it. Some people have it, some people dont. Most people dont. He had a lot of it. (Jordan 115) Pre was a special person and changed running totally. He changed peoples views on it he made people see it as a sport and not just a hobby. To him running was special and he conveyed these feelings to all the world. He once said Some people create with words or with a brush and paints. I like to make something beautiful when I run. I like to make people stop and say, Ive never seen anyone run like that before. Its more then just a race, its style. Its doing something better than anyone else. Its being creative.(Jordan 161) Pres running career did not start until he was in the 8th grade. In the 8th grade while at football practice he would see the cross country team running by and think to himself What kind of crazy nut would spend two or three hours a day just running?(Jordan 6) It wasnt until physical fitness test in gym showed him what it was to run, and that he had a talent like nobody else. Once in high school he just started winning. In his freshmen year he found himself a letter winner on his schools cross country team. In his senior year he set a new high school 2 mile record running a 8:41.5. He won the mile ...

Helpful Lessons for Warm Fires in the Firewood Poem

Helpful Lessons for Warm Fires in the 'Firewood Poem' This Firewood Poem was written by the wife of World War I British Hero Sir Walter Norris Congreve.  Lady Celia Congreve is believed to have written it around 1922 for a published book entitled  Garden of Verse.  This particular verse expresses how information in the form of a poem can both beautifully  describe things and serve as a guide for burning wood. This poem fetchingly describes the value of certain tree species for their ability to provide or failure to provide heat from seasoned and unseasoned wood. Lady Congreve likely composed the poem using traditional English folktales passed down through the centuries. It is amazing how accurately and charmingly the poem captures the properties of firewood. The Firewood Poem Beechwood fires are bright and clearIf the logs are kept a year,Chestnuts only good they say,If for logs tis laid away.Make a fire of Elder tree,Death within your house will be;But ash new or ash old,Is fit for a queen with crown of gold Birch and fir logs burn too fastBlaze up bright and do not last,it is by the Irish saidHawthorn bakes the sweetest bread.Elm wood burns like churchyard mould,Een the very flames are coldBut ash green or ash brownIs fit for a queen with golden crown. Poplar gives a bitter smoke,Fills your eyes and makes you choke,Apple wood will scent your roomPear wood smells like flowers in bloomOaken logs, if dry and oldkeep away the winters coldBut ash wet or ash drya king shall warm his slippers by. Lady  Congreves Firewood Explained Traditional folk legends are quite often expressions of early wisdom acquired over time and passed along by word of mouth. Lady Congreve must have taken anecdotes from these to compose this very accurate depiction of the properties of wood and how different tree species burn. She especially pens praises for beech, ash, oak and aromatic fruit trees like apple and pear. Wood science and measurements of the heating properties of wood totally support her recommendations. The best trees  have a dense cellular wood structure that, when  dry, have greater weight than lighter woods. Wood that is dense will also have to ability to produce more heat over a longer period of time with longer-lasting coals. On the other hand, her assessments of chestnut, elder, birch, elm, and poplar are spot on and deserve her bad review. They all have low wood cellular densities that rapidly burn with low heat but few coals. These woods produce a lot of smoke but very little heat. Lady Celia Congreves  poem is a cleverly written but non-scientific approach to selecting firewood. It is certainly supported by the sound science of wood burning and heating values.

Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility Essay - 1

Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility - Essay Example The case of Levi Strauss shows that corporate social responsibility and ethics help the company to create positive social image and maintain moral and ethical environment which appeals to customers, porters and the society in general. Levi Strauss is a leading apparel manufacturer operating on the market since 1853. Levi Strauss establishes a strict code of ethics which is a statement of corporate values and priorities, system guide for employees and management team. A Code of Ethics is very important in manufacturing industry because it is closely connected with quality of goods, moral and honest decisions (Sajhau 2000). The code of ethics accepted by Levi Strauss consists of two main parts: the Business Partners Terms of Engagement determining relations with partners and potential subcontractors, and Country Assessment Guidelines stipulating the selection of supplier countries. Taking into account the main articles of the Code, it is possible to say that ethics becomes a crucial part guarding and controlling decision-making process in Levi Strauss (Sajhau 2000). This Code shows that ethical principles applied by the company are concerned with truth and justice and include aspects which society expects, e.g. soc ial responsibilities and corporate behavior. Following Frederick (2002) to deal with areas that may be considered technically legal but, in the eyes of American Management, improper or unethical, companies must develop and disseminate explicit policies that are rigidly and expeditiously enforced if broken. They fall into this category, as do areas such as proprietary information, product misrepresentation, disparagement, premature disclosures, acquiring or divulging confidential information, certain gifts and entertainment, and conflicts of interest. Levi Strauss pays a special attention to its public image and the company's reputation (Kolk & Tulder, 2001). Application of Ethical Theories Virtue Ethics According to McIntyre, virtue ethics is based on the idea that a business should follow human virtue principles to behave morally. The case of Levi Strauss shows that the comapny values are core beliefs about what is intrinsically desirable. They undelines the choices made in work decisions just as they underlie the choices made in one's private life. They give rise to ideals that are called ethics or morals. In simple terms it basically mandates employees to treat customers and partners as they themselves would like to be treated: tell the truth, treat others fairly, etc. "We will favor business partners who share our commitment to contribute to improving community conditions" (Levi Strauss & Co n.d.). Following Gillian, virtue ethics ensures stable position of business and its compliance with moral norms and principles. Ethical inquiry requires the decision maker to consider facts in light of important values. The conclusions reached are often stated as judgments, such as "he is a good person"; "bribery is wrong, even though it may be profitable"; "caring about others is the essence of virtue". Levi Strauss follows these guidelines and develop its code of ethics and partnership according to these simple rules and principles. Because many people perceive right and wrong from different angles, the objective of Levi Strauss in the area of ethical and moral standards is to establish what 'is right' (Zablow, 2006). Deontological

Immigration in the United States Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Immigration in the United States - Research Paper Example The United States is unable to regularly review its policies on immigration as it is often a thorny political issue especially during the elections (Immigration in the United States, 1). Initially, immigration in the US was majorly European (due to industrialization) followed by the Chinese who arrived after the discovery of gold in California. Much of the current legislation on immigration in the US is based on family unification and some of the rules that have been put in place to deal with illegal immigration include sanctions, fines and penalties for employers who knowingly employ illegal immigrants, stricter border surveillance and enforcement and legalization of unauthorized immigrants who have been residents for five years and over. However, these measures alone are unable to keep out illegal immigrants and so other laws are constantly introduced (such as those that allow arrests, detentions, deportations, stricter penalties for immigration related crimes, barring chances of legal re-entry for illegal immigrants, tracking foreign visitors and denying access to federal public benefits) and the current legislations often amended (Immigration in the United State s, 1). New regulations make it easier for persons with superior US degrees in fields such as science, math and engineering to acquire work visas. Following the 9/11 attacks, units such as the CBP monitor entry and punishes illegal entry at ports, the ICE oversees things such as detentions and removals and the USCIS determines applications, petitions, asylum and refugee requests, among other functions. New stricter rules in the aftermath of these attacks mean tighter border inspections, tracking of foreign born personnel in the US, more stringent visa screening, prohibited issuance of driver’s license to illegal persons and expanded grounds for one to be refused admission, removed or declared fit for asylum/ protection. In addition, collaboration with foreign governments and

Milgram’s experiment Essay Example for Free

Milgram’s experiment Essay Milgram’s experiment provided a logical answer to these questions: ‘is it possible that people will do things because they are merely obeying the orders of a person in authority or ‘what will motivate a decent person to do unethical acts? ’ The answer to these questions was very important during his time. During the World War II over 5 Million Jews were executed by the National Socialist Regime led by Adolf Hitler. Stanley Milgram, a Yale University Psychologist, theorized that it is very much possible that Adolf Eichmann executed these people because he was merely blindly obeying the orders of a superior authority. This means that he was not a principal in the crime but a mere accomplice. This also means that the execution may have been done against his will. Thus, he set up his experiment to test and determine how much pain an ordinary citizen is willing to inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to do so by a scientist, an authority figure. The result is that 60% to 65% of the participants were prepared to inflict fatal voltages against another person in obedience to the scientist’s order. In Milgram’s experiment, the authority figure represented the scientist. In our lives, a person in authority could be our parents, our professors, our boss in the office, the local policeman, the local priest, a fraternity or sorority senior, or any person in whom trust and respect is reposed. We consider a person to have authority over us because of their age, relationship, position, designation and even skill. I believe one reason why people obey a person in authority even if the latter’s order is against morality is because one thinks that by obeying a person in authority he no longer becomes the doer of the action but simply the agent. (â€Å"Milgram Experiment†) If he has done something wrong then he is not to be blamed. Thus, he rationalizes that any and all moral and legal responsibility for such action should not fall upon him and instead the responsibility should fall upon the shoulders of the person in authority. Another plausible reason why a person simply obeys a person in authority even if the deed is contrary to his sense of morality is moral ignorance. (â€Å"Milgram Experiment†) It is possible that the doer may not know what to do in such a situation as a result his only course of action would be to follow the commands of a person in authority. He may be unaware that there are better options. When people do not know what to do and how to act in a particular situation as a result we allow other person to make decisions for us whom we trust and respect to be capable of making the right decisions. II. I think children are socialized to obey authority figures primarily because the parents as the first authority figure were raised in the same culture and environment. As part of their socialization process, their own parents raised them in the similar manner where respect for authority figures was emphasized. Thus, they bring family culture and environment to their own families. Also, I think the parents, as the first authority figures in the child’s life want their children to obey them as they have obeyed their own parents. As part of the discipline process, parents want their children to give respect to them and to follow their wishes and instructions so that it will be easier for them to impose discipline on their own children. Further, from the perspective conforming to the social rules, the parents because of their vast experiences have learned how important it is for one member of the society to obey simple rules e. g. traffic rules, penal laws, company policies. They have also learned that there are times when there are rewards for obeying authority figure or the mere fact that one does not get into trouble is a reward in itself. As a result they want to pass on to their children that obedience and conformity is a social norm which everybody has to accept so that there will be order and harmony within the society. Thus, it is stated that conformity to social rules is so important that all its members must be inducted to into its moral norms, attitudes, values, motives, social roles, language and symbols because it is the only means by which social and cultural continuity are attained.

Aphra Behns Oroonoko as the First Modern Novel Essay -- Oroonoko Essay

  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the seventeenth century, the art of writing was like uncharted waters for women, in which most who ventured were rendered pathetically unsuccessful.   No matter the quality, publications written by women were typically ridiculed by their male contenders.   However, a handful of women defied the common standards and were prosperous; one of these was Aprha Behn.   Virgina Wolf says of Behn, "All women together ought to let flowers fall upon the tomb of Aphra Behn, for it was she who earned them the right to speak their minds."   Although she was a woman of outstanding accomplishments, one of her publications truly glistens.   Oroonoko (1688), the epic tale of a heroic black slave, has often been dubbed the first modern novel in that it displays qualities utterly matchless for the seventeenth century.    Although one may not realize it, several aspects work harmoniously in constructing the modern novel.   According to Ian Watt, three of these are particularity, unity of design, and rejection of traditional plots.   A novel must focus on specific characters and has to occur in a distinct time frame.   Furthermore, a novel should have a plot unlike others of the era.   One common idea or theme should also rule the work.   All of these characteristics are vividly expressed in Oroonoko.    Particularity, Watt states, is "the amount of attention it [the novel] habitually accords to both the individualism of its characters and to the detailed presentation of their environment."   Behn puts an emphasis on only a few main characters; these being Oroonoko (Caesar), the narrator who is a white mistress, and Imoinda, Oroonoko's love.   The writer goes to great lengths to brilliantly paint a picture of Oroonoko for the readers, ... ...el - distinctiveness, unity of design, and rejection of traditional plots. Behn's accomplishment in writing Oroonoko both paved the way for future female writers and set an example for prospective novelists.   Truly her impassioned account of a maltreated slave who died for liberty will forever be revered and cherished as the first modern novel.    Works Cited Behn, Aphra and Janet Todd.   Oroonoko, The Rover and Other Works. England: Penguin Classics, 1992. Hunter, Paul J.   "Before Novels".   The Aphra Behn Page.   <http://www.lit-arts.com/rmn/behn/novel.htm> 22 July 1999. Watt, Ian.   "The beginnings of the English novel".   The Aphra Behn Page. <http://www.lit-arts.com/rmn/behn/novel.htm>19 July 1999. Wolf, Virginia.   "A Room of One's Own".   The Virginia Wolf Society of Great Britian. <http://orlando.jp.org/VWSGB/> 22 July 1999.

Offset Printing History

1 History of Printing Presses Printing is a method of transferring an image to surfaces for the purpose of communication. A printing press is a mechanical apparatus for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium. The invention of the printing press is considered as the most influential event in the second millennium revolutionizing the way people learn and communicate. Rubbings from stone inscriptions were an early reproduction method in which images were carved into stone, similar to the gravure process.The substrate, which was a thin strong paper, was moistened to make it soft . A kind of adhesive is placed on the surface of the stone. The paper is placed over the surface of the stone and a stiff brush is used to rub the paper over the stone and into every depression of the stone. Ink is applied over the paper after it was dried. The paper is peeled off from the stone and a reversed image within black ink was revealed. Stone rubbings were used to print books, especially religious texts and historic classics. Drawing materials include charcoal, inksticks, graphite and wax.Seal Printing and the Origin of Letterpress Printing The Chinese also used a method of reproducing images that is similar to our present-day rubber stamp method (Fig. 1:1) called seal printing. Before seal printing was invented, the Chinese used a receipt-like system to transact business. Two ends of a bamboo stick were written in duplicate for a particular business transaction. When the transaction was completed, the bamboo stick was broken and each member would receive a record of the transaction. For nobility, the emperor provided a token of jade.The jade was broken and one half was given to the subject and the other half kept by the emperor. A seal stamp made of clay eventually replaced the tokens. One method of seal stamping was to force an impression into a surface with the seals. The other method was to ink the seal and transfer the wet inked image to a substrate . Presswork and Bindery Processes 1 An early form of seal printing was the use of signet stones. These stones were used in Babylon and other ancient countries as an alternative for signatures and as religious symbols. These stones or devices consisted of seals and stamps for making images on clay.The stone, often located on a ring, was dabbed with pigment or mud and then pressed against a smooth surface to make an impression. Fig. 1:1. Chinese seal and print. Fig. 1:2. Chinese ink stick. Block Printing in China The Chinese developed a method of printing in the fifth century in which a wooden block was used to reproduce images on certain surfaces over and over again. Wooden blocks were made from coniferous wood, honey locust trees, jujube trees, boxwood, and date and pear trees. Each tree had advantages and disadvantages as far as printing was concerned.The coniferous wood trees had a problem of uneven printing because of resin that was impregnated in the wood. If delicate and fine l ine images in illustrations were required, the honey locust tree was used. For text, the soft boxwood was used, while the pear tree provided the best wood to use for various types of images, followed closely by jujube and date trees. Blocks were soaked in water for about a month after they were cut. If the blocks were needed in a hurry, they were boiled, left to dry, and then planed on both sides. Some printers used both sides of the blocks.The printer had to cut away all portions of the block except the image area (Fig. 1:3). All images had to be carved backwards so that when printed on a substrate, the images would appear correctly for reading. The wood carver had to be very skillful in carving text and illustrations backward. These blocks marked the invention of letterpress printing. The non-image areas of the block are below the surface of the form, and the image areas are on the surface of the form. The printing method was simple. Ink was rubbed on the surface of the form with a brush (Fig. 1:3).A sheet of paper was then placed over the form with gentle pressure so it could receive the images . A dry brush was used to press the sheet against the form. It must be noted that the original paper was so thin that usually only one side was printed. Because the paper was very translucent, blank sides of the printed sheets were placed back to back in publications. 2 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fig. 1:3. Chinese wooden block printing. Fig. 1:4. The Diampond Sutra. A color technique was developed during this time. Color separated blocks were carved and printed in register with other color-separated blocks and text as well.This was the first attempt at multicolor printing. An important invention in printing technology occurred during the Song Dynasty. It was the invention of movable-type printing. A commoner by the name of Pi Sheng used movable-type blocks for printing during the Qingli years (1041-1048) of the Northern Song. This invention ushered in an era of movable-type printing and is a significant milestone in the history of printing. This invention soon died in China because it was very complex. The invention soon found its way to Europe in the fifteenth century. Movable TypeAn alternate method of reproduction called movable type was developed in the eleventh century in China. This method was established well after the wooden block method, which came around the fifth century. Movable type consists of individual letters, characters, and symbols creating a language or an alphabet (Fig. 1:5). These elements could be used in the printing of one form, and then be taken apart and used to print other forms. The thousands of different characters in the Chinese language made the use of movable type cumbersome and slow. The Chinese writing system was a pictographic and ideographic method of communication.The Chinese alphabet system consisted of almost forty-thousand characters. Each character represented something in real life such as trees, animals, and pottery. Pi Sheng is given credit for the invention of movable type. He used clay and carved individual characters. The carved letters were put into fire to harden them. A metal frame with a mixture of wax was used as a base for evening out the surface of the type. The typefaces were set close to each other to make up a form of type. The entire block of type was then forced into the waxed metal tray and planed down with a smooth board after the wax was melted down in an open flame.Presswork and Bindery Processes 3 Pi Sheng reasoned that each type or character was to be used over and over again. One advantage of the movable type method is that characters could be deleted or inserted without throwing the entire form away. Fig. 1:5. Chinese movable type. Fig. 1:6. Movable type printed document. The Middle Ages in Europe Before 1450, the majority of books in Europe were produced by the arduous task of manuscript writing and recopying. The few exceptions were books that were printed by the wooden-block method, which was introduced into Europe by the year 1400. This slow, laborious process required skillful workers.Block printing was also used for illustrations in books (Fig. 1:3) and in the printing of playing cards. During this era, a period that saw little or no advancement in the arts or sciences became known as the Dark ages. This period was also marked by a lack of communication. Monks, who worked in monastery rooms called scriptoriums or writeries, produced the majority of books written during the Dark Ages. The religious scribes were responsible for the recording of history and the production of books, as well as most other intellectual activity during this period. The bookmaking trade was highly specialized.Books were elaborately decorated with colored initials, and they often displayed special gems, precious stones, and gold on their covers. Books were scarce and the average person could not afford them. In addition, most people could not read or write in Europe during this era. During the Dark Ages, books were highly illustrated, since this facilitated communication. Many illustrations were featured in religious books as well as on playing cards. These illustrations were engraved in wood or metal, inked, and impressed on the sheet, a process that required great skill. There is proof 4 Presswork and Bindery Processes hat blocks were exchanged between printers. Several illustrations appeared in different publications. The same images were often used to illustrate different subjects. Type and illustrations at first were printed in two separate impressions because they were produced at different heights. Over time, type and illustrations were produced at the same height. The Renaissance era, a period that was marked by an intellectual awakening, began around the thirteenth century. People began to study the sciences and the arts and to explore their environment. Many discoveries were being made, and people wanted to have kn owledge of new ideas.Fig. 1:7. Statue of Gutenberg. Fig. 1:8. Gutenberg style screw press. Fig. 1:9. The Gutenberg Bible. The Gutenberg Era (1397-1468) During the Renaissance, people experimented with methods for the faster reproduction of books. One result of these experiments was the successful use of movable cast type and a press in printing by Johannes Gutenberg (Fig. 1:7). The invention was revolutionary for several reasons. European languages, in contrast to those of Asia, were alphabetic. They consisted of relatively few characters, such as the twenty-six letters of English.This small number of different characters made the use of individualcharacter types (movable type) practical. Casting each character in quantity from a mold and using a press for printing permitted very fast reproduction of written materials. Through experiments and innovations, Gutenberg perfected the printing process before the famous printing of the bible. Each page printed had thirtysix lines per page. Later the lines per page increased to forty-two. Because of this invention, printing soon spread rapidly throughout Europe. Books became plentiful because they could be printed more quickly.Many persons could now afford books, and printing fulfilled the demand. Intellectual activity and learning began anew. Because of the impact of books on the culture of Europe at this time, printing became recognized as the art that preserves all the arts. The following reasons help to further explain the importance of the invention of movable type: 1. With movable type, a greater degree of accuracy was possible. 2. The supply of books increased greatly. Over twenty thousand volumes for one book could be produced in one year. Presswork and Bindery Processes 5 3. Because books were plentiful, they were affordable.They became readily accessible among all classes of people. 4. The invention of printing stimulated the desire for learning. The invention of printing, more than any other invention, was credited with bringing Europe out of the Dark Ages. 5. A standard alphabet was in place. Despite many languages on the European continent, thousands could share from the same invention. Presses were set up in Holland, France, England, and other European nations. 6. Gutenberg invented a press (Fig. 1:8) fashioned from a wine press. Ink pads, which were made of leather stuffed with wool or horsehair, were used to apply ink to the form. . The ink that Gutenberg used was have been made from linseed oils and lampblack. Later it was discovered that traces of lead, titanium, and copper were also used. Gutenberg could not use the India ink produced in China, because it did not print well from metal types. 8. Gutenberg’s own contribution was a punch and mold system for producing metal types. This method created the mass distribution of movable types for printing. Despite the accomplishments of Gutenberg and other European printers, we cannot forget the Chinese influences on their inve ntions.These inventions eventually made their way to Europe via explorers, who came back with startling discoveries, including paper, playing cards, movable type, block printing, image prints, and paper money. The printing trade was not profitable. Gutenberg himself did not become rich from his innovations and contribution to the world. The problem lay in the marketing of books in Europe during that time. Although the demand for books and other printed matter was great, methods to market and transport books needed to be developed. Early European Printers (Graphic Arts Procedures) 460 Strasburg, Germany †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Johann Mentelin 1464 Strasburg, Germany †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Heinrich Eggestein 1465 Subiaco, Italy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Conrad Sweynhem 1467 Rome, Italy. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Ulrich Han 1468 Basel, Switzerland †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Berthold Rappel 1469 Venice, Italy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Johann of Speyer 1470 Venice, Italy . †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Nicholas Jenson 1470 Paris, France. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Michael Fibiger 1473 Nuremberg, Germany †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Anthony Koberger 1473 Utrecht, Netherlands †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Gerardus Leempt 1473 Lyons, France †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ .Guillaume Leroy 1494 Venice, Italy †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Aldus Manutius 1497 Paris, France †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Henri Estienne 6 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fifteenth Century PrintingPrinting was a very important invention during the Renaissance era. The key to the invention of printing lies in the manufacturing of movable type. This technology had to be perfected in order for the printing process to be developed. A few inventors worked on the development of movable type. A punch of a particular type style and size had to be produced. This punch was used i n making an impression of the typeface in a mold. The mold was made from copper, which is soft enough to receive the impression from a steel punch, but durable enough to withstand the heat from the molten metal that was poured into it to produce the type.The punch itself had a reversed character, which was reversed into the matrix as a positive recessed character. A wrong reading character was produced from the casting of molten metal in the mold. The person that produced the punch was often the designer of the typeface. Fig. 1:10. Fifteenth century typesetting and type casting (Cary Collection). The term unjustified matrix or strike was referred to as matrix that was produced by depressing the punch within the copper. The term matrix is used after the copper with its impression is fitted within the mold for casting (Fig. 1:10).The goal in the casting of type was to produce type of equal height. This was necessary in order for printers to obtain an even impression with few difficult ies. The matrix and its fitting within the mold were the key factor in the controlling of the type height. This was accomplished by using the same mold throughout the manufacturing of a font. In addition to the type height, the paralleling or the side-by-side placement of the type was also important. If type were not produced on a square body, then it would not stand straight and would slant when locked together with other characters. Presswork and Bindery Processes 7Molds were made up of two parts and screwed together in a parallel adjustment. In this way the mold could accommodate matrix of varying size. During the hand casting process, a worker could face shrinking of type, uneven filling of the molten metal in the mold, and injury from the heat of the molten metal. The process was slow, but the type could be used for thousands of jobs. By the mid-nineteenth century, automatic methods replaced the manual methods of typecasting. Workflow in the Fifteenth Century The workflow in th e fifteenth century included composition, imposition, printing, and binding.In the composition stage, once the text was decided on to print, then the volume of copy was determined. Lines per page as well as the total number of pages for the job were determined. The printer would then know how much paper was needed for the job. The compositor set the type for the job using a composing stick. Every time the stick was filled, the lines were transferred to a metal tray called a galley. Pages were formed in the galley. Pages in the fifteenth century were arranged on large stones in printer spreads. Pages were enclosed by wooden pieces, which are called furniture.A metal frame called a chase surrounds all pages and furniture. To secure the form, locks or quoins were used. One page with no printing on the other side was called a broadside. Two pages were called a folio; four pages, a quarto; and eight pages, an octavo. A pressman pulled a proof sheet from the imposed form (Fig. 1:11). The proof was given over to a corrector and a reader. The reader read the original copy as the corrector trailed along on the proof sheet to ensure that the text was the same. This process continued until all corrections were found and changed.Because of these continuous changes, no single copy of an early printed book is identical to any other. Fig. 1:11. Fifteenth century printing (Cary Collection). Paper was prepared the day before the actual press run. Piles of sheets each were set out, wetted, and allowed to stand overnight. This was necessary because the common screw presses of the time did not have enough power in them to force dry paper to evenly take the ink. 8 Presswork and Bindery Processes Two pressmen were involved in the printing process. One applied ink to the type, and the other pulled the bar and worked the paper.Pulling the bar required a lot of energy and printers would take turns in this process. Ink balls were used to applied ink to the form. These ink balls were ma de of leather pads, mounted in wooden cups and handles, and stuffed with wool or horsehair; they were then covered with a sheepskin pelt. Ink balls were inked, and ink was placed over the form in a rocking motion. A sheet of paper was then laid on the tympan. The tympan, paper, and frisket were folded together onto the form. The pressman then pulled the bar toward himself. This caused the turning of the screw, drawing the platen down and forcing the paper against the inked form.It sometimes took two pulls to print one form. The carriage was cranked out from under the platen. The tympan and frisket were raised, and the paper was removed. Sheets of paper were printed on the reverse side immediately while the sheet was still damp. Printing on both sides of the sheet is called perfecting. After the job was printed, the compositor cleaned the ink off the forms, unlocked the type, and distributed the type into the cases. Printed sheets were sent to a drying room and hung up in sets to dry . They were then piled into heaps on a long table and collated by signatures.Next they were folded once, pressed, and baled for delivery or storage. Fig. 1:12. Adams power platen press. Fig. 1:12a Early inking apparatus. Evolution of inking rollers. Fig. 1:13. Ink balls. Fig. 1:14. Ink brayer. Fig. 1:15. Inking rollers. Presswork and Bindery Processes 9 The Power Platen Press In 1830, Isaac Adams of Boston invented a press, which combined the advantages of the hand press and a press that could print larger forms. The platen on this press was stationary with the bed of the press rising to make contact with the platen to print.The form would be inked when the bed of the press returned to its lowest position. At this point the inking rollers would transfer ink over the printing form. A frisket was used to carry the sheet to the printing position (Fig. 1:12). The average speed of these presses was around 800 sheets per hour. Inking rollers evolved from a hand frame with two handles auto matically inking rollers, to the use of vibrating rollers to drive the rollers in the unit. An earlier method of inking employed a â€Å"roller boy† or an â€Å"assistant pressman†. Soon the inking apparatus (See Fig. :12a) was run by power, which was signaled by the action of the bed moving up and down. The Job Presses Job work consist of smaller work such as tickets, circulars, business cards and bills. This type of work became problematic for hand-press printing where the demand was in place for smaller, faster and more accessible presses. One of the first job presses was called the Adams press. This press did not meet the qualifications that were needed to run smaller job work. S. P. Ruggles of Boston introduced a series of presses in 1830. They were known as â€Å"card presses†.The card press was manufactured with a flat side on the side of a cylinder supported between side frames. A second flat surface known as the â€Å"platen† was directly across from the bed of the press. Rollers on the press, which traveled around the cylinder, did the inking. The largest press sheet on the press could accommodate a press sheet of 6† X 9†. Other notable presses include: The Albion Press of 1835 (Fig. 1:19), The Paragon Press of 1829 (Fig. 1:17), the Stanhope Press of 1816 (Fig. 1:20) and the Chandler and Price Platen Press of the early 1900s (Fig. 1:18). Harrison T. Chandler and William H.Price founded Chandler and Price Company in 1881 in Cleveland, Ohio. Chandler and Price manufactured machinery for printers including hand-fed platen jobbing presses, paper cutters, book presses, and assorted equipment. Fig. 1:16. Clymer-Columbian Press. Fig. 1:17. Paragon Press. 10 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fig. 1:18. Chandeler & Price Press. Fig. 1:19. Albion Press. Fig. 1:20. Stanhope Press. Many job presses came out with several improvements over the years. These improvements included: †¢ Larger press sheet sizes. †¢ Faster press speeds. †¢ Better synchronization of the bed and the platen. Improvement in the inking roller application. †¢ Better impression devices. †¢ Automatic feeding and delivery. The newspapers were printed on wooden hand presses operated by levers and screws. It was not until around 1816 that the new iron Columbian press came into general use. The Columbian press (Fig. 1:16), invented by George Clymer of Philadelphia, had, instead of a screw, a series of compound levers that multiplied the pull of the operator. All hand presses were slow. The forms had to be laid by hand and the inking of the form was notably poor and of uneven quality. Web Offset DevelopmentWith the nineteenth century came the addition of the steam-powered press, the cylinder press and the web press. An American inventor by the name of William A. Bullock (Fig. 1:32), patented the web press. The web press printed from rolls of paper rather than from individual sheets. This was followed by another Ame rican invention, the continuous roll press, devised by Richard M. Hoe. This device sped up the production of newspapers to around 18,000 newspapers an hour. In 1871 Hoe (Fig. 1:30) and company turned their attention to constructing a press that would feed a continuous roll of paper and print on both sides of the fed paper.They petitioned ink manufacturers for the development of fast drying inks. Paper manufacturers were asked to produce rolls of paper with Presswork and Bindery Processes 11 Fig. 1:21. William Bullock Web Press. Fig. 1:22. Web Perfecting Newspaper Press. Fig. 1:23. Turn bars Assembly on a Web Press. 12 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fig. 1:24. Web Press Infeed Section. uniform strength. But there were other problems that needed to be solved including the severing of sheets after printing and an accurate delivery of papers. Stephen D. Tucker, who was an employee of Hoe and Company, patented the gathering and delivery mechanism.This mechanism produced flat rapid deliv ery of printed sections. The web presses operated at speeds as fast as 18,000 impressions per hour. This finishing device was necessary for the production of â€Å"fold ready† products for immediate delivery by carrier or mail. The finishing steps were done â€Å"inline† or on the same piece of equipment. Initially equipment similar to the traditional folding machine was used. Conveyor belts would carry the sheet to right angle folding units, which were made up of folding rollers until the desired folded format was completed. Then in 1875 Stephen D.Tucker patented a rotating folding cylinder. This device folded the papers as fast as they were printed approaching speeds of 15,000 per hour. Paper enters from two rolls into two portions of the press. The web is printed (perfected) on both sides of the sheet and traveled towards the rotating folded cylinder. The sheets entered a triangular former, which folds the sheets at a predetermined place on center of the sheets. The sheets were then taken over a second cylinder, which gave it another fold. A knife then severed the sheet separating it from the web.The folded section traveled down a conveyor belt to be manually removed, wrapped and shipped Cylinder Press Invention William Nicholson received a patent for an idea for press in 1790 in which a form is to be placed on a cylinder over a flat bed. The substrate is fed between the bed and the impression cylinder to receive an image. The application of ink was done with rollers on this press. The rollers was composed of cloth covered with leather. Nicholson's envision for this press was far ahead of his time. Nicholson did not have a method for producing curved letterpress plates to fit around a cylinder.The securing of the plate for printing was another mystery at that time that would have to be figured out. In 1814, Frederick Koenig invented the first automatic press (Fig. 1:25). Frederick Koenig was a clock maker by trade. Koenig’s first press was actually patented in 1810. The entire bed moved laterally, and the form received ink from a set of inking rollers placed at one end of the press. The key to the automation of this press was the metal gripper finger, which in essence replaced human fingers for providing sheets to the press. Before this time, presses had been fed by hand.The automatic press was powered by steam and was used in printing the Times of London. It printed approximately 800 sheets per hour, an amazing feat in the 19th century and adequate for the population of that time. Thomas Bensley, a printer and Andrew Bauer a mechanic, assisted Koenig. They invented a press with a bed that moved laterally with the form and an impression cylinder that pressed the wet inked image on the substrate. The impression nip, or the area that prints at any given time, is very small on a cylinder press, resulting in a much better image transferred to the substrate.More importantly, this invention prevented many injuries and d amage to the press because operators were not in close contact with the moving parts on the press. Presswork and Bindery Processes 13 Fig. 1:25. Koenig’s cylinder press. Fig. 1:26 Hoe’s cylinder press. Fig. 1:27. Battery of cylinder presses. 14 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fig. 1:28 Advertisement of a cylinder press. Richard Hoe and the Rotary Press Richard Hoe (Fig. 1-30) was born in New York City. He went to work for his father, who manufactured printing presses. His father experimented with cylinder presses until his retirement in 1830.Richard carried on this work after his father retired in 1830. He invented the single cylinder press, which was capable of printing 200 copies per hour. Hoe also introduced the double cylinder press in 1844, known today as the rotary press. One cylinder carried the type to be printed while the other cylinder carried the paper and provided printing pressure so that the image could be transferred to the substrate. Rotary presses requ ires curve metal letterpress plates. The difficulty of making these curved plates slowed the acceptance and growth of rotary presses.Curved stereotype plates were accepted and used by 1870. The rotary press became the press of choice for newspaper reproduction, business forms, catalogues and magazines. A flying splicer was introduced for the continuous printing of publications without the need of stopping the press. This device changed the rolls by attaching a new roll to and expired roll. Hoe also invented an additional press in 1847 (Fig. 1-30), which featured a type form and four cylinders for carrying the sheets through the press. It is interesting to note that a boy, who fed sheets to the cylinder, also attended each cylinder.This press produces prints at the rate of 8,000 sheets per hour. Hoe is also credited with the invention of a web perfecting press. This press feeds from rolls of paper and is printed on both sides of the sheet. The presses were powered for the most part b y steam. Electric power took over in the nineteenth century as the main power source for presses. Presswork and Bindery Processes 15 Fig. 1:30 Richard Hoe (left) and his six rotary press (above). Fig. 1:31. Richard Hoe web press. Fig. 1:32. William Bullock. 16 Presswork and Bindery Processes Fig. 1:33. William Bullock’s rotary press.

Cleanliness and Sense of Beauty Essay

Introduction: Human being is the best amongst all the living being in this world. They live in a society, where they don’t only just live for food and shelter. They have to survive sustaining with various conditions, environments, people, customs, cultures etc. So in this society of mankind, human has a lot of responsibility as well as maintenance duty. Discipline makes a human being to do all such activities mentioned above and to lead a life with dignity in the society. And cleanliness is a part of discipline of human life. Sense of beauty is the thing that helps us to justify good and bad aspects of life. Cleanliness: Cleanliness means the sense of remaining clean, neat and tidy. This particular sense is very significant in a man’s life. Because by cleanliness, the nature and type of a person is judged in our society. For an individual, to take proper bath, to wash his/her teeth, to wash his/her clothes regularly and to keep them neat and clean etc are the basic measures of cleanliness. For a family, the duties are like to keep the house clean, to keep everything in a well decorated manner, not to litter anything on the floor, keeping the walls clean, not making the bathroom wet and dirty etc. And the people of a particular area or society, to keep the roads clean, not to throw garbage here and there, not to litter anything on the roads, to use dustbin to throw wastages etc are the sole duties of cleanliness. Sense of Beauty: Sense of beauty is a term that means having a very good taste about everything. This indicates how he/she looks at different things of art, and various things. This sense of beauty is very important too, as this sense justifies between various things and helps us to indicate the quality and beauty amongst things. Sense of beauty also enables us to learn the good and bad, pretty and ugly. From the very childhood parents try to teach this particular criterion of human mind. Importance of cleanliness and sense of beauty in our life: Cleanliness is a great virtue. It is said that without a clean body one cannot have a clean mind. Cleanliness is a religious duty too. In Islam, it is said â€Å"Cleanliness is a part of Iman (faith)†.

Answer Questions Example

Answer Questions Example Answer Questions – Coursework Example Anthropology Observational Analysis: Option Chimpanzees just like all sets of living organisms embrace specific behaviors that help them adapt to their environments. One outstanding behavior that I have observed is their copulatory success, which is normally high and results into a substantial number of progeny. Primate behavioral ecologists have overtime reaffirmed the opinion that too many offspring routinely harm other primates within the group, for they are normally forced to search for better living conditions because of limited resources. The ecologists attribute the copulatory success of chimpanzees to the fact that they can easily access their mates given the large social groups within which they reside. Option 2 In the past, chimpanzees used to walk on four legs, while current research has pointed towards the fact that a considerable percentage of chimpanzees have begun embracing bipedalism (University of California). Researchers have attributed the need to walk on two legs to natural selection and the need to adapt, as quadrupeds burn numerous calories, hence their cells wear out and die faster while bipedalism provides chimpanzees with the platform to use their calories prudently. Point Make-up optionsQuestion 1: Primatology The submissive and dominant behavior portrayed by apes in the movie Rise of the Planet of Apes is undeniably accurate, as corroborated by research carried out by Yerkes Primate Center researchers and published by the National Academy of Sciences. The investigators argued that apes reside in complex and tightly woven societies, and use gestures to convey countless messages including for compromise and obedience. Consequently, they reaffirmed that the only way through which apes would manage to exist such amicably was by being submissive.Question 5: Biological Anthropologyi. The perpetrator in the case cannot be identified using the standard DNA tests essentially because the key suspects are identical twins, who developed from a so litary fertilized egg, hence have nearly undistinguishable genomes. ii. For the prosecutors to tell the identical twins apart, they will have to carry out the ultra-deep, which is a next generation sequencing procedure that takes closer look at the genetic base pairs. This procedure is likely to work, as it depends on mutations that take place unsystematically in the course of development and it is exceptionally improbable that both twins will go through mutations at a single location. Works-CitedUniversity of California- Davis. Why Humans Walk on Two Legs. Science Daily. Science Daily 2007, July 20. Accessible at: www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/07/070720111226.htm.

Top 10 Highest Paying Nursing Jobs

Top 10 Highest Paying Nursing Jobs if you’re going into nursing for the money, you are probably not choosing a career for the right reasons. still,  knowing what salary to expect can definitely help you plan your career. across the field of medicine and across the country, salaries can vary based on location and experience factors, but scrubsmag has rounded up the available data for you to consider. according to the u.s. bureau of labor statistics, the top pay group for nurses includes nurse anesthetists, nurse midwives, and nurse practitioners (median salary $96,460, and the top 10% of earners can receive as much as $161,030). payscale.com reports the following stats and averages:  1. nurse anesthetistmedian  total annual salary*: $133,115 total salary annual range*: $83,449–$185,065 median hourly rate: $69 hourly range: $30.09–$95.05  2. psychiatric nurse practitionermedian total annual salary: $90,376 total salary annual range: $71,109–$127,386 median hourly rate: $50 hourly rang e: $35.66–$80.21  3. adult nurse practitionermedian total annual salary: $88,199 total annual salary range: $75,016–$114,185 median hourly rate: $46 hourly range: $35.86–$60.23  4. certified nurse midwifemedian total annual salary: $86,013 total annual salary range: $69,564–$109,650 median hourly rate: $45 hourly range: $36.21–$54.63  5. family nurse practitionermedian total annual salary: $84,239 total annual salary range: $69,705–$110,359 median hourly rate: $44 hourly range: $34.86–$58.26  6. nursing directormedian total annual salary: $83,029 total annual salary range: $56,340–$122,462 median hourly rate: $37 hourly range: $24–$55.30  7. clinical nurse specialistmedian total annual salary: $81,305 total annual salary range: $61,674–$117,969 median hourly rate: $40 hourly range: $29.94–$63.96  8. clinical nurse managermedian total annual salary: $75,965 total annual salary range: $53,845†“$100,567 median hourly rate: $33 hourly range: $22.88–$45.26  9. registered nurse supervisormedian total annual salary: $65,854 total annual salary range: $48,761–$89,544 median hourly rate: $29.87 hourly range: $22.94–$40.66  10. charge nursemedian total annual salary: $65,265 total annual salary range: $47,670–$85,918 median hourly rate: $29.04 hourly range: $22.40–$39.06

Consumer Psychology and Buyer Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Consumer Psychology and Buyer Behavior - Essay Example It is of utmost importance for the marketer to know the behavioural patterns of the target consumers much before the product is launched. Therefore, it can be said without any doubt that the study of consumer behaviour has been the arena of constant research for a marketer. A person can be referred to as consumer if he shows his willingness to obtain goods or services from a seller with the intention of making payments. Consumer behaviour can be defined as the study of variables that determine the purchasing behaviour of any willing person to purchase any product or service. Consumer behaviour is believed to be influenced by the factors like psychology, sociology and economics apart from the product knowledge, product specifications and brand recognition. Cultural factors - The behaviour of a grown up person often depends upon the set of values, perceptions and his preferences as a child, which he acquired from his family or other influential sources. Each culture also has certain sub-cultures within it which provides more specific identification of their behaviour. A subculture includes religion, nationality, region and racial groups. A proper understanding of the implications and bearings of the sub-cultures assists the marketer to analyse the behaviours of the consumer in an effective way. Another important factor that must be taken into consideration along with the cultural factor is that of social class. Social class is indicated by a cluster of variables like occupation, wealth, income and education among other factors. Social class is a crucial variable because a person is often perceived as inferior or superior based upon the social class. It has been observed that social classes essentially differ in dress, speech, hobbies, etc. Social Factors - The social factors like reference groups, family, roles and ranks also determine the behaviour of the consumer. Reference groups are the groups that have a direct influence on the attitude of the buyer, which might affect his purchasing behaviour. Groups that have direct influence on the consumers are known as membership groups. Membership groups can be subdivided into two categories, namely primary group (which consists of family, friends and neighbours with whom the person interacts informally) and the secondary group (which calls for more formal interaction and often based upon profession or religion). The studies on consumer psychology have also shown that people often get influenced by the groups to which they are not directly related. It might take the form of an aspirational group (it is that group to which the person longs to get associated and behaves the way the group does) or a dissociative group (the consumer do not like the group and so behaves in a way so that is not same as the way the group does). The other major player among the reference group is the opinion leader. Opinion leader is a person who is believed to have a sound knowledge on a product and its usage and takes informal channel of

INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY-Unit 4, Question # 1 Essay

INTRODUCTION TO CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY-Unit 4, Question # 1 - Essay Example These movements were intentionally as tools for demanding and attaining political autonomy from the colonial governments. In some countries like south Africa, colonialism led to social and political segregation were the whites and the blacks were entitled to different political and social rights. However, this ended as a result of the powerful effect of political resistance and liberation movements like African National Congress (CANC) (Scupin and DeCorse, 2007). Political division of the Africa is another major effect of colonization on Africa. European nation divided different areas of Africa into colonies to serve their needs for raw materials and needs of overseas markets. These colonies reflect the present day African countries. A positive aspect of colonialism was the rise of powerful African leaders who could lead the continent towards a brighter economic and political future. Examples of these are President Nelson Mandela of South Africa. Colonialism also opened a door for the poor to participate in politics through revolutions were majority of the members were peasants. Many aspects of contemporary Africa portray the residual effects of colonialism. An example of this is the boundary disputes and separation of people from similar ethnic background. This came because the political division of Africa into colonies was done arbitrarily without knowledge of its socio-cultural characteristics. These boundaries are now political hotspots. The citizens of different African countries are basically created groups who were left behind fighting for the resources across created boundaries. Factions among communities can also be traced to colonial experience. One of the techniques that colonialists used to dominate a country, and thus prevent uprising, was to split its community into factions then pit them against each other. The creation of the Hutu and the Tutsis in Rwanda is a good example. After a few generations, these divisions intensified and

Advise the Board of Directors of Choc Delux of their liability to Assignment

Advise the Board of Directors of Choc Delux of their liability to Kylie under the tort of negligence - Assignment Example The inclusion of a new ingredient was not communicated to customers. However, it can be argued that nuts are edible and are mostly used alongside cocoa. In this regard, Choc-Deluxe did not foresee any harm. According to tort law, harm should be foreseeable for a firm to be accused of negligence, thus, liability can be exempted. Consequently, the relationship between a firm and its customers is a bother. For a firm to be held responsible, there must be proof that it understands the customers situation, thereby proving negligence of the duty of care (Caparo Industries Plc v Dickman [1990] 1 All Er 568) The complications that arose from consumption of the product caused Kylie a huge economic loss. However, there is a weak link between the company’s products and the economic losses of Kylie. Choc-Deluxe cannot be accused of negligence since they had no information about the chain of events that would lead to the loss. Thus, the duty of care cannot apply in such instance (Hedley Byrne V Heller [1963] Ac 465). In Bolton v Stone [1951] AC 850, a defendant cannot be deemed negligent if the damage caused by the actions were not foreseeable. In the case of Coke deluxe, the damages to the plaintiff could not be foreseen as her condition was not known to the company, thus, the company is not responsible for the violation of torts. Consequently, there was no established link between nuts and injury among many consumers, thus making Kylie’s a unique case. The extent of economic and health damage caused by consuming chocolate laden with nuts can be attributed to lack of proximity in the relationship between the firm and the customer. Irregardless of the fact that Choc-Deluxe needed to communicate to the customers about the changes, a tort could not be admitted since the company did not have the details of her special circumstances and if knowing her circumstances would have made an impact on the

Crime and Society Essays criminal justice considerations

Crime and Society Essays criminal justice considerations INTRODUCTION the problems of society become most visible when change occurs, and recent decades have brought immense social and economic changes (Pampel, 2000: 52). This can be revealed most clearly in the sociological aspects of youth crime. However, it has also been claimed that social policy should evaluate how policies impact on peoples lives (Blakemore, 1998: 5). Durkheim noted that society works best when it exercises control over individuals (Pampel, 2000: 72). Acceptable behaviour is enforced through law and morality which is maintained through rules and principles: the cement of society (Devlin cited in Elliott and Quinn, 1998: 449). This cement illustrates legal moralism that has been identified as socially significant (Cotterrell, 1989, Page 1). Accordingly, an analysis of laws conceptual structures (Cotterrell, 1989, Page 3) could be ascertained and the importance of shared values emphasised, ultimately influencing individuals behaviour (Pampel, 2000, Page 57). This has been reflected in a decline of organic solidarity, differentiating societys collective conscience, and thereby creating an environment for an increase in crime. This philosophy of inter-related support has been recognised as structural functionalism which, taken to extremes, acknowledges that poverty and crime are normal and natural functions within any healthy society (Pampel, 2000, Page 75). The rule of law should represent the ideal of a universal goodness exhibiting no negative impact on any given society, and no negative characteristics that could apply to its nature according to Thompson (Thompson, 1975, Page 266). Unfortunately, it appears to be this concept that has swung too far in the favour of societys miscreants, to the detriment of their victims, the communities in which these offenders live, and the weaker members of society, prompting the current debate on victims rights and David Blunketts intentions to re-address the balance to deliver real justice to victim s and the wider community (Blunkett, 2002b). This essay evaluates the wider issues surrounding the criminal justice system, social policy and how feminism and the study of gender impacts on these sectors. Classicism and positivism are particularly relevant to any study of criminology and lead to an introduction of criminological theories which attempt to put feminism into the context of social policy within the criminal justice sector. Crimes amongst the youth might also be considered to be a reflection of the current social trends and this facet has briefly been evaluated in terms of social environment. The conclusion summarises many details introduced in this essay. 2. DISCUSSION 2.1 Definitions of crime The Royal Commission on Criminal Justice was set up to: examine the effectiveness of the criminal justice system in England and Wales in securing the conviction of those guilty of criminal offences and the acquittal of those who are innocent (Zander, in Martin, 1998). The Runciman Commission made 352 recommendations in 1993, from police investigations to disclosure of evidence (Field and Thomas, 1994 cited in James and Raine, 1998: 40). All aspects of the criminal justice system came under scrutiny, with 600 organisations contributing to its evidence (Martin, 1998: 115). During this period, the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, the Criminal Appeal Act 1995 and the Criminal Procedure and Investigation Act 1996 were all implemented, with varying interpretations and capricious emphases which altered according to Management changes. Pampel observes, however, that: the problems of society become most visible when change occurs, and recent decades have brought immense social and economic changes (Pampel, 2000: 52). Durkheim, meanwhile, noted that society works best when it exercises control over individuals (Pampel, 2000: 72) with Weber maintaining that: societies work more smoothly when the use of power has legitimacy in the eyes of both the rulers and the ruled (Pampel, 2000: 113). Deterrence, retribution, rehabilitation and incapacitation constitute the four major theories of punishment. Deterrence aims to reduce crime through threat of punishment, or through its example. The concept is that the experience of punishment would create an impact unpleasant enough to prevent any further offence. Penalties are established to prevent crime being contemplated, with the idea that the example of unpleasant consequences would make potential criminals reconsider any future offence. Retribution requires an offender to contribute community-based endeavours through proportionality related to the crimes committed. The concept involves cleaning the slate through enforced labour to account to society for any misdemeanour. With the intention of better justice through more consistent sentencing, the White Paper preceding the Criminal Justice Act 1991 suggested that convicted criminals get their just deserts (HMSO, 1990a). This concept does actually limit the States power through limiting exemplary sentences, achieving parity when two offenders receive similar punishments for similar crimes. The National Victim Support Programme was considered a way forward with respect to societys acceptance of restorative justice but both of the major political parties have pursued half formed and in many ways half hearted policies in relation to victims of crime. There is little indication of change in this area (Newburn and Crawford, 2002: 117). Conformity through inner positive motivation exemplifies the theory of rehabilitation, although it has been criticised for disparity in proportionality. The concept is not based on the degree of offence committed or focused on the criminals past, but on future rehabilitation to preclude re-offending through changes of circumstances. Conversely, incapacitation recognises that some offenders fail to respond to deterrence or rehabilitation and continue to commit crimes as and when an opportunity to do so presents itself. For criminals with this mindset the only option is protective sentencing to prevent further crimes being committed, thereby punishing the offender for crimes committed with a further implication of punishment for future crimes that could be envisaged if released. An equally important part of restorative justice must be in measures to prevent crimes being committed. Funding of 6 million has been invested in a Government programme to reduce crime. Some of these measures include restorative justice, enforcement of financial penalties, CCTV initiatives, treatment of offenders, youth inclusion initiatives, targeting policies and intervention work in schools To be effective in developing suitable policies the criminal justice system need to approach the problem from different angles simultaneously, and adopt a policy of co-operation and co-ordination across all involved parties. Since the inception of the Regional Crime Squads (South cited in Maquire, 1994, 423), co-operation has existed across autonomous police forces, and surveillance intelligence squads can acquire information which, along with co-operation from the other agencies which make up the criminal justice system, can be collated and used to prevent some of the worst excesses of violen ce and crime erupting. Novick argues that the basis of the State is a need for a single and efficient protective association in a territory (McCoubrey White, 307) with Jacques considering that economic efficiency needs to be assessed in respect of its impact on human feelings, on community and on social relationships and the quality of life in society (Jacques, 1976, 15). Adjudication provides a formal mechanism for resolving disputes, with rules of change available to deal with new problems requiring further elucidation and rules of recognition involving prerogative powers and the sovereignty of Parliament. These rules do not account for those natural rules which acknowledge those inherent fundamental human rights. According to Finnis (2002), each individual is aware that deviation from societys code of behaviour would result in sanctions being applied to avoid injustice. The ethos Finnis applies to his explanation of retribution is considered to rectify the distribution of advantages and disadvantages b y depriving the convicted criminal of his freedom of choice in proportion to his unlawful act. Regardless of theories, an escalating scale of crimes continue to be committed, with 5.2 million offences recorded in England and Wales during 2000 (Recorded Crime, HMSO Press Release, 19/01/01) which, when compared to 3.87 million in 1989 and 479,40,018 in 1950, has an effect on long term projections in the prison population to 2008 (British Crime Survey 2001 2002). Evidence of this was exhibited when the disturbances in Strangeways prison took place in 1990, prompting the Woolf Report (Custody, Care and Justice, HMSO, 1991). It was published as a White Paper in 1991 and highlighted the relationship between overcrowding in prisons and the maintenance of control, promoting ongoing discussions about the aims of imprisonment. Meanwhile, the crime response and solving rate has fallen from 45% to 29% despite the number of police officers having increased from 63,100 to 126,500 (British Crime Survey 2001 2002). Maguire suggests that: increasing numbers of police officers, an increase in telephones making reporting easier, increasing use of insurance, and reduced levels of public tolerance to violence have all contributed (Maguire, cited in Croall, 1997). Stern recognises the system often precludes dedicated people from a more effective route of exacting retribution (Stern, 1989: 247). The diversity of ideas and practices associated with the restorative justice movement exemplify the difficulties associated with the concept. Johnstone (2003) highlights the paradigm of justice associated with practical experimentation that underlies the values and ideas which involve a number of models of theoretical law covering criminal and civil law together with restorative justice. The relevance of this earlier part of the essay reflects the ethos of restorative justice: this is not a new concept, nor can it be viewed in isolation. 2.2 Classicism, Positivism and Realism The divergence of positivism from its precursor, classicism, was described by Austin as a rule laid down for the guidance of an intelligent being by an intelligent being having power over him. (Austin, 1995: 9). Parallels with this concept can be illustrated within the feminist model whereby women were classed as irrational beings and of secondary importance to men. It has been acknowledged that criminological theories have been developed by men for men and attempts to categorise women offenders in accordance with these precepts fails to be applicable (Gelsthorpe and Morris, 1990: xii-8). In other words, men have acquired a dominant position in society. Left realism reflects this dominance. The ethos of left realism illustrates that certain types of behaviour that is more prevalent amongst the less powerful would be classed as criminal. Criminal laws were then introduced to reflect this concept. Rather than the criminal being regarded as an acquiescent offender, left realism would ha ve them portrayed as a victim of society. Furthermore, it is from the concept of left realism that the notion of a number of actors, involving the offender, the police, the victim and the criminal justice system has developed. Left realism distinguishes between a macro level of crime theory and a micro level, the former involving the sociological aspects and the latter a more micro level involving an individual and personal viewpoint of crime (Lilly, Cullen Ball, 1995) and takes into account the role of the victims of crime. Constraints on space preclude a detailed discussion on left and right realism, but an overview identifies four important factors which are regarded as being inter-related and which contribute to a holistic image of crime on both a micro level and a more integrated macro level (Young, 2002). The various theories, such as Labelling Theory, represent right realism and tend to focus on the offender and the reasons why they acted in the way they did. The emphasis on feminism within the field of criminology evolved through the ethos of left realism, where male dominance was recognised for its fundamental contributions to traditional criminological theories. A universal assumption relates to womens particular role within society and, accordingly, studies of women offenders are considered particularly relevant to the sociological facets such as morality and economic situations (Smart, 1976). It has been recorded that 84% of known offenders in 1984 were men, from which Heidensohn notes: Women commit a small share of all crimestheir crimes are fewer, less serious, more rarely professional, and less likely to be repeated (Heidensohn, 2002, 491). Furthermore, according to Barclay (1995, page 20), just 8% of women were convicted of an indictable offence from a population born in 1953 (cited in Heidensohn, 2002, 494). It must be noted that, whilst violence is most often perpetrated by men, 1 in 5 occurrences of violence against women were committed by other women (Coleman and Moynihan, 1996, page 97). According to Gelsthorpes model, however, any studies focusing on womens criminality often tend to focus on their gender rather than the crime itself (1986: 138 149), resulting in sweeping generalisations being made and an assumption that women are mad not bad (Lloyd, 1995: xvii cited in KeltaWeb, 2005). Taken further, it has been suggested that laws are constructed and enforced by men to the disadvantage of women (Burke, R, 2001). Criminology from the feminist perspective is exemplified through either liberal, radical, Marxist or socialist models, the latter also incorporating post-modernism and eco-feminism. The significance of the feminist stance within the criminal justice system relates partly to societys perception of their biological function and lack of rationality, in accordance with Lombrosos theories of atavism. This positive philosophy is a disparate variation from classicism, and was introduced into criminological theory by Lombroso, Ferri and Garofolo (Williams and McShane, 1991: 35) although it was noted that They failed to find the numbers of born female criminals marked by physical, atavistic traits which they anticipated (Heidensohn, 2002, page 492). Heidensohn notes, however, that the evidence of Lombroso and Ferreros work has survived whereas their equivalent rese arch relating to men did not (Heidensohn, 2002, page 493), although other research revealed the importance of sociological and environmental factors (Heidensohn, 2002, page 493). The distinct theories of classicism and positivism have been recognised in criminological studies as the two major hypotheses in the science of penology, conceding criminal anthropology as inherent in identifying criminals through their genetic structure, likening it to atavism (Lombroso, 1876). All people are considered equal according to classicist precepts and governments are created by those individuals to protect the peoples rights through the recognition of a social contract (McCoubrey and White, 1999: 60 84). Classicists aspire towards civil rights, realised through the law as a system of due process. It is this emphasis on the social contract that compounds the deviance as a moral offence against society. Punishment is proportional to the seriousness of the offence and can only be justified to preserve the social contract and deter others (Williams, 1997: 8). The constrained concept of Classicism identifies as autonomous a person who is the result of their environment. Positivism, however, has been documented as either internal, [assuming an atavistic involvement of the psychological or biological aspect], or a sociological aspect of positivism which is outside an individuals control (Burke, 2001: 272) and assumes a dependency in individuals. Positivists approach deviance from a scientific perspective which enables deviance to be rectified through a combination of power and knowledge. The correlation between positivism and criminological theory identified criminals through an inherent genetic structure, perceived as atavistic features edifying villainous characteristics which could be identified through isolationist principles and surveillance experiments and through case studies (Lombroso, [1876] in Williams and McShane, 1991: 35). These sociological studies exhibited a reciprocity which was attributed to a specific social order, deviation from which society recognised as a criminal act. Positivist theory attributed this deviation to an abnormality that could be treated, with the hypothesis suggesting that criminals could be reformed. As the final result was intended to protect society from harm, punishment was sanctioned to provide treatment, not to punish, with cognitive treatments involving group therapy sessions and the use of drug therapies to achieve these objectives. Conversely, Bentham and Beccaria propounded the classical theory of fundamental rights associated with natural law. Their utilitarian principles of autonomy, liberty and rationality acknowledged deviance as a rational act against the rules of society and from which these miscreants needed to be dissuaded through the application of punishments (Burke, 2001: 270). 2.3 Criminological Theories Hobbes observation of human actions being ultimately self-serving, including the concept of morality, related cognisance to a state of nature which guarantees the survival of the fittest. Classicists such as Hobbes, Bentham and Beccaria considered that deviance is an inherent characteristic in the psyche of all individuals (Gottfredson and Hirshi, 1990), displayed as an expression of human rationality towards the presence of bad laws (Beccaria, 1963). Beccaria suggested that punishments should be consistent and logical and bound within the legal system. From the basis on non-conformity to societys rules, deviance has been regarded as a miscreants response to temptation and the exercise of their power over others. Use of a structural method elucidates relationships between a hierarchy of individuals and groups which have been considered to be inherent within the structural approach to criminology and, equally important, societys reactions to criminal behaviour. Crime tends to exhibit specific reactions against deviance, evidence of which can be seen with the Labelling Theory (Lemert, 1967) which focuses attention on the hierarchical role of crimes in society. Control theory, meanwhile, unearths links between individuals and institutions, for example family background and upbringing and corresponding behavioural actions and reactions. Hagan relates this philosophy to what he terms the structural study of crime (Hagan, 1988: 3) and the Power-Control Theory which plays a significant role in explaining the social distribution of delinquent behaviour through the social reproduction of gender relations (Hagan, 1988: 1 287) and affects the social distribution of delinquency. Moreover, one important aspect of this theory is the ethics associated with crime and delinquency, for example, the effects of gender on criminality. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), meanwhile, suggest that classicism is revealed through the control theories which exhibit consequences painful to the individual. (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990) Positivism in relation to criminology depended on the scale of rationality between free will and determinism according to precepts of Cesare Lombroso whose explanations of criminal behaviour resulted in the criminal born man or woman who exhibited physical attributes leading to their recognition as criminals, a situation not supported by Durkheim. Too many variables made Lombrosos theory precarious but his typologies were correlated between certain offenders committing certain kinds of crime (Gottfreddson and Hirschi 1990). A number of other theories exist to explain a psychological or sociological basis to the science of criminology. Bandura and Eysenk studied observational learning, conditioning and personality traits, whilst the Strain Theory and the Anomie Theory of Merton blame environmental pressures on deviance, with the Subculture Theory attributing lack of attainment to societys expectations to be at the heart of offending. 2.4 Sociological Aspects of Youth Crime Whilst all people might be considered equal according to classicist precepts, with governments created by those individuals to protect the peoples rights through the recognition of a social contract (McCoubrey and White, 1999, Page 60 84), David Blunkett singles out a specific sector of society by suggesting that: nearly three quarters of street crime offenders are under 17 and a hard core five per cent of juveniles are responsible for 60 per cent of offences for their age group (Blunkett, 2002c). Clearly, despite the introduction of innumerable projects designed to re-integrate offenders back into their communities, the growth in lawless behaviour has not diminished. Many measures to restrain unacceptable behaviour are now available, amongst which are Youth Offending Teams, Final Warning Schemes, Detention and Training Orders, Acceptable Behaviour Programmes, Parenting Orders, Reparation Orders and Anti-Social Behaviour Orders (Blunkett, 2002c) although, retrospectively, little appears to have improved. In December 2003 Lord Falconer of Thoroton emphasised that this: crime and anti-social behaviour corrupts communities, eating away at the fabric of the way we all want to live our lives (Lord Falconer, 2003). An increasing lack of morality appears to be more prevalent within modern society, with Chief Superintendent of Greater Manchester Police describing these amoral youths as feral (The Times, 2005). Despite all the legislation at the disposal of the criminal justice system, however, the yob culture appears to be endemic, with the vulnerable in society more at risk of becoming victims than ever before. The media report lurid headlines on a daily basis: Beaten to death on his doorstep (Daily Mail, 2005); Beaten up on Video Phone (Daily Mail, 2005); Hoody ban eases shoppers fear (Daily Mail, 2005, page 8). The edition on May 19th 2005 reported how thugs attack a funeral car by launching an 8 foot length of wood through the windscreen of the car travelling immediately behind the hearse. It has been reported that some forces are not making good use of legislation and tackling the imitation firearm problem (Deputy Chief Constable, Daily Mail, 2005, Page 8) when children, some as young as 13, routinely carry replica BB guns, which can cause serious injury to targets up to 30 yards away, around the streets. CONCLUSION In 2002 the Home Secretary intended: to deliver real justice to victims and the wider community and strike a fair balance between the rights of victims and the accused (Blunkett, 2002a). The Legal Action Group suggest that victims and defendants rights are mutually incompatible (Cape, 2004, page 1) and suggest that victims rights are not being catered for; their rights are neither acknowledged nor respected. However, they also ascertain that, in making it easier to convict defendants is not in the best interests of the victims. The fragility between rights to security and freedom and the obligation to protect communities, reflects a natural result of shared morality without which rules would lack meaning (Pampel, 2000, Page 67). This factor was clearly recognised by David Blunkett who acknowledged the public felt that the system had swung too far in favour of the accused (Blunkett, 2002a). This intensely deep-rooted problem of lawlessness within communities cannot be solved by the police alone. Henham observes that this can only be achieved through: disregard of formal legal controls which prove an obstacle to the production of a high conviction rate although he acknowledges that due process maintains an adherence to courtroom procedure and protection of the individual (Henham, 1998, Page 592). Many organisations have highlighted the growth in recorded crime despite measures in place to punish the offender. Punishment falls into various areas from incapacitation to retribution, deterrence to rehabilitation. A large number of theories abound, all attempting to explain the reasons behind criminal actions. These theories investigate the backgrounds of criminals, their psychological and physical attributes and their positions in society together with their abilities to cope with expectations placed on them by society. As yet there has been no definitive answer and, due to so many variables, there possibly never will be. Controversially, Durkheim believed that a certain amount of crime failed to harm society and was normal and valuable in a healthy society (Cotterell, 1992: 159), with the ideas of right and wrong being reaffirmed through the existence of crime and punishment (Pampel, 2000: 59). This reflects a natural result of shared morality without which rules would lack meaning (Pampel, 2000: 67), promoting the concept of the durability of social life inevitably assuming a definite form. Individual and collective morality would assume that offenders should be punished to maintain the stability of the community and maintain their safety. Our collective conscience ensures that the majority accept the rule of law and accept that deviance needs to be punished. Psychologically, restorative justice is assumed to invoke aesthetic sentiment of forgiveness for miscreants and release for victims. What it fails to do is provide society with assurances that their safety and integrity will be maintained in an atmosphere where the offenders rights appear to be upheld in variance with those of the victim, or the fundamental rights the victim is entitled to expect. A personal view could be recorded which considers that restorative justice exhibits illusionary tendencies to pacify the reformers at the expense of societys status quo. Clearly, not a supporter of restorative justice this writer intuitively distorts the semantics and cognitively refers to this concept as retributive justice: more aptly named, and far more appropriate for the majority of offenders who, regardless of intervention programmes to rehabilitate them will continue to offend despite societys best efforts. BIBLIOGRAPHY Austin, 1995, cited in Martin, J (1999): The English Legal System: Oxford, UK, Hodder Stoughton, p.115 Beccaria, Cesare. (1963) [1764]: On Crimes and Punishments. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. 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